Did you know that some of the gods and goddesses familiar from Indian traditions also appear in Japanese temples—but under different names and in different forms?
Japan is thousands of kilometres away from India, yet the two countries share a remarkable cultural and spiritual history. One of the most fascinating examples can be found at Tō-ji Temple in Kyoto, where Buddhist sculptures and religious artworks reveal the influence of Indian religious ideas, iconography, and artistic traditions.
The story goes beyond Buddhism alone. Figures associated with deities such as Saraswati, Lakshmi, Ganesha, Shiva, Brahma, Indra, and Yama also became part of religious traditions in Japan, often taking on new meanings.
Researcher Sampa Biswas explores this connection in her paper Tōji and India-Japan Spiritual Connect, published as Occasional Paper 4 by the Kizuna India Japan Study Forum in 2024.
How Did Indian Buddhism Reach Japan?
The cultural connection between India and Japan developed through the spread of Buddhism across Asia.
According to Biswas’s paper, Buddhism was officially introduced to Japan in the sixth century CE, traditionally dated to around 538. It brought not only religious teachings but also artistic traditions, sculptures, sacred texts, and systems of representing Buddhist figures.
The transmission was not a direct journey from India to Japan in every case. Buddhist ideas travelled through networks connecting India, Central Asia, China, and other parts of East Asia.
As these teachings moved between regions, they were translated, interpreted, and adapted to local cultures.
This process helps explain why a religious figure originating in an Indian tradition might look different in a Japanese temple, have a different name, or be worshipped for a different purpose.
Why Is Tō-ji Temple So Important?
Tō-ji is a historic Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. Its development is closely associated with the Japanese monk Kūkai, also known as Kōbō-Daishi, who helped establish Shingon Buddhism in Japan.
In 804 CE, Kūkai travelled to China as part of an imperial delegation. There, he studied esoteric Buddhist teachings under the master Huiguo. He returned to Japan in 805 with knowledge of this tradition and related religious objects.
Esoteric Buddhism, sometimes called Tantric Buddhism, uses rituals, sacred symbols, mantras, mandalas, and distinctive representations of deities as part of religious practice.
Kūkai later became associated with Tō-ji, which developed into an important centre of Shingon Buddhism.
The temple’s Lecture Hall contains a remarkable arrangement of Buddhist sculptures organised as a Karma Mandala—a visual representation of religious and cosmic relationships through sacred figures.
Biswas’s paper examines how this sculptural arrangement reflects the influence of Indian religious imagery and how those images were adapted within Japanese Buddhism.
What Is a Mandala, and Why Does It Matter?
A mandala is a structured visual representation of a sacred universe or spiritual reality. In esoteric Buddhist traditions, mandalas can help practitioners understand relationships between Buddhas, bodhisattvas, protective deities, and other spiritual beings.
At Tō-ji, the Lecture Hall’s sculptural mandala includes twenty-one figures arranged in a meaningful composition.
Some figures belong to established Buddhist traditions, while others reflect the incorporation of deities originating in Indian religious culture.
Their placement, gestures, weapons, clothing, and animal mounts communicate different roles and qualities.
This is one reason the temple is important to art historians: the sculptures provide evidence of how religious ideas travelled and changed across cultures.
The Five Wisdom Kings: Powerful Guardians of Buddhist Teachings
One of the striking features discussed in the paper is the appearance of the Five Wisdom Kings, known in Japanese as Myō-ō and associated with the Sanskrit term Vidyārāja.
Unlike the peaceful appearance commonly associated with many Buddhas, these figures often have fierce expressions, powerful bodies, multiple arms, and dramatic poses.
Their fearsome appearance is not simply intended to frighten people. In their religious symbolism, they represent the power to overcome ignorance, destructive attachments, and obstacles to spiritual understanding.
Among them is Fudō Myō-ō, a particularly important figure in Japanese esoteric Buddhism.
Fudō Myō-ō: The Immovable Protector
Fudō Myō-ō is commonly shown with a sword and a rope.
In the interpretation described by Biswas, the sword represents the power of knowledge to overcome error and ignorance. The rope symbolises the restraint or guidance of beings towards liberation.
Flames surrounding the figure represent the destruction of spiritual impurities and illusions.
Fudō is often depicted seated or standing beside a rock, reinforcing the idea of an unwavering mind.
These images demonstrate how religious art uses physical objects to communicate abstract philosophical ideas.
Brahma and Indra: Indian Gods in Japanese Buddhist Art
Two important figures discussed in the paper are Brahma and Indra.
In Japanese Buddhist contexts, they are known as Bon-ten and Taishaku-ten, respectively.
Both figures originated in Indian religious traditions and were incorporated into Buddhist cosmology. In Buddhist stories and artworks, they can appear as protectors of the Buddha and the Buddhist teachings.
At Tō-ji, their representations show distinctive features that Biswas identifies with Indian iconography.
For example, the depiction of Bon-ten includes multiple heads and arms, as well as a seated posture on a lotus supported by geese—features associated with Indian representations of Brahma.
Taishaku-ten is shown with an elephant mount, a detail that also connects the figure to Indian visual traditions.
These differences are important. Earlier Japanese representations of Brahma and Indra could appear quite similar and wear Chinese-style clothing. The Tō-ji figures display more distinct characteristics, reflecting the continuing reinterpretation of Indian-derived imagery.
The result is not simply a copy of Indian art. It is an example of how artists in Japan adapted inherited religious forms into a new cultural setting.
Saraswati in Japan: From Goddess of Knowledge to Benzai-ten
Saraswati, widely known in India as a goddess associated with learning, wisdom, eloquence, and music, also became part of Japanese religious culture.
In Japan, she is known as Benzai-ten, or Benzaiten.
The paper explains that Saraswati was adopted into Buddhist traditions and that different representations reflected different aspects of her identity.
Some images emphasise wisdom and learning. Others highlight music, prosperity, or protective powers.
In certain representations, Saraswati holds a musical instrument. This imagery connects with her association with music and artistic expression.
Her transformation illustrates an important feature of cultural transmission: a deity may retain recognisable attributes while gaining new associations in another society.
For readers familiar with Indian religious traditions, Benzai-ten offers a fascinating example of how a familiar figure can become part of another country’s cultural identity.
Lakshmi in Japan: Kichijō-ten and the Symbolism of Prosperity
Lakshmi, associated in Indian traditions with wealth, beauty, fertility, and abundance, also has a counterpart in Japanese Buddhist culture.
She is known as Kichijō-ten, a figure associated with good fortune and prosperity.
Biswas traces the presence of this deity in Japan to the influence of Indian religious ideas during the Nara period (710–794 CE).
The paper describes Japanese representations of Kichijō-ten as elegant and richly decorated, with fine clothing, jewellery, and carefully rendered colours.
These works reflect the artistic preferences of the periods in which they were created, combining religious symbolism with Japanese and broader East Asian aesthetic influences.
The goddess’s association with abundance also fitted into religious practices intended to support peace, favourable conditions, and good harvests.
The story of Lakshmi in Japan shows how a deity’s identity can be preserved while the visual style and religious setting around her change.
Ganesha in Japan: The Unusual Twin-Form Deity
One of the most surprising connections is the presence of Ganesha in Japanese religious traditions.
In Japan, Ganesha is associated with figures known as Binayaka and Kangi-ten, also called Shō-ten.
The paper discusses a distinctive form of Kangi-ten in which two elephant-headed divine figures embrace one another.
This representation differs from the single elephant-headed form most familiar to many people in India.
According to the paper, the twin form has an esoteric meaning within Japanese Shingon Buddhism. It is associated with spiritual union and is treated as a sacred image in particular ritual contexts.
Some of these images are kept concealed from ordinary public view.
Ganesha also became associated with removing obstacles and bringing good fortune in Japan, although the precise meanings and practices differ from those found across Indian traditions.
The comparison is a powerful example of religious imagery evolving as it travels. A recognisable divine figure can develop forms and meanings that are unusual in its place of origin.
Yama: The Indian God of Death in Japan
Yama, associated in Indian traditions with death and the afterlife, also has counterparts in Japanese Buddhist culture.
The paper discusses forms known as Emma-ten and Emma-ō, representing different aspects of the deity.
One form is associated with a more benevolent role, while another emphasises judgement and the fearful aspects of the afterlife.
These contrasting representations reflect the different ways religious traditions imagine death, justice, protection, and the consequences of human actions.
The paper also discusses Chitragupta, described as a record keeper associated with Yama in Indian traditions, and identifies a Japanese counterpart known as Gusho-jin.
Such comparisons reveal how stories and images associated with the afterlife were adapted as Buddhist traditions developed across Asia.
Shiva and Mahakala: How a Fierce Deity Took on New Meanings
The paper also examines Mahakala, known in Japanese religious contexts as Daiikoku-ten.
The figure is connected with Indian traditions associated with Shiva and with the symbolism of time, destruction, and the overcoming of ignorance.
In Japan, however, Daiikoku-ten developed a particularly important association with wealth and good fortune.
The paper describes a transformation from fierce representations to a more benevolent figure, often shown standing on rice bales and carrying a bag and a hammer.
This form became associated with prosperity and household well-being. Images of Daiikoku-ten could be placed in domestic settings, including kitchens.
The transformation is particularly interesting because it demonstrates that the meaning of a deity is not fixed forever. As religious images move between societies, local customs and expectations can influence how the deity is understood and worshipped.
Why Do Indian Deities Appear Differently in Japan?
The answer lies in a long process of cultural adaptation.
When Buddhism spread beyond India, it carried sacred texts, rituals, artistic models, and representations of divine figures. In each new setting, these elements interacted with existing religious beliefs and artistic practices.
Several factors influenced the changes:
Translation: Indian names and concepts were rendered into Chinese and Japanese languages.
Artistic adaptation: Sculptors and painters modified clothing, poses, facial expressions, and other visual details.
Religious interpretation: Figures could acquire new roles within Buddhist cosmology.
Local needs: Communities sometimes worshipped deities for protection, prosperity, health, good harvests, or relief from calamities.
Ritual traditions: Esoteric Buddhism used specific images and arrangements as part of religious practice.
The result was a shared but diverse cultural heritage. The Japanese versions of Indian-derived deities were not always identical to their Indian counterparts, and their meanings could change considerably.
What Does Tō-ji Reveal About India–Japan Relations?
Tō-ji offers a valuable way to understand the history of cultural exchange between India and Japan.
The temple’s art reveals connections that go beyond the movement of religious teachings. It shows how visual symbols, stories, and ideas were transmitted through networks involving India, China, and Japan.
The influence was not simply a one-way transfer in which Japan copied India. Japanese artists and religious communities interpreted the material within their own traditions, producing distinctive works of art and new religious meanings.
For Indian readers, this history offers a new perspective on familiar figures such as Saraswati, Lakshmi, Ganesha, Brahma, Indra, and Shiva. Their presence in Japanese religious culture demonstrates the extensive reach of Indian-derived religious ideas across Asia.
For students of Japanese culture, the sculptures provide a way to explore the connections between religion, art, history, and international cultural exchange.
Research Paper Reference
Biswas, Sampa. (2024). Tōji and India-Japan Spiritual Connect. Kizuna India Japan Study Forum, Occasional Paper 4.
The article above is based on Biswas’s discussion of Tō-ji Temple, Japanese esoteric Buddhist art, and Indian religious iconography. Specific historical interpretations and deity identifications follow the paper’s account.
